A history of the Maya: The myth of ‘collapse’

As portion of an exploration into Mexico’s agelong and affluent history, Mexico News Daily has teamed up with 1 of the country’s apical Maya experts to analyse the past satellite that flourished crossed Mesoamerica. This is Part 5 successful a bid of articles connected the past of the Maya. Follow the links to read Part 1, Part 2, Part 3, Part 4 and Part 5.

The Postclassic period, spanning astir from A.D. 1000 to the autumn of the past Maya governmental capitals of the Highlands astir 1524, has been the unfortunate of a persistent humanities misinterpretation. For overmuch of the 20th century, accepted archaeology and fashionable imaginativeness consolidated the thought that, pursuing the “collapse” of the large cities of the Classic Period, Maya governmental entities sank into a signifier of decadence and taste degradation, lacking the architectural oregon intelligence sophistication that characterized centers specified arsenic Tikal, Calakmul oregon Palenque.

However, modern probe has dismantled this narrative. What we recognize contiguous is not a process of decline, but alternatively a political, economical and societal reconfiguration. The Postclassic play did not people the extremity of Maya culture, but the exhaustion of a circumstantial exemplary of rule: that of the ineffable lords, oregon k’uhul ajaw. In their place, much pragmatic regimes emerged, on with firm powerfulness structures and an system that specialized successful long-distance maritime trade. This modulation demonstrates an bonzer capableness for adaptation successful the look of environmental, governmental and societal crises.

Notable cities and their locations during the Maya Classic and Postclassic periods. (Kmusser – Foster, Lynn/Wikimedia Commons)

The reorganization of the Maya Lowlands

Around A.D. 1000, the scenery of the Maya Lowlands underwent a extremist transformation. The cities that had dominated the Classic play — Tikal, Calakmul, Caracol and Copán, among others — experienced a process of progressive depopulation. It is important to enactment that this improvement did not connote a full and instantaneous abandonment. Recent archaeological probe has detected persistent occupations connected the peripheries of these large taste centers.

The autumn of the strategy of ineffable rulers was a improvement driven by antithetic causes, arsenic captious biology changes were added to shifts successful powerfulness structures, with notable prolonged droughts that undermined the cultivation base. This script triggered a monolithic societal displacement toward 2 cardinal geographic regions: the Northern Lowlands, connected the Yucatán Peninsula, and the Highlands, successful the present-day territories of Guatemala and Chiapas.

Chichén Itzá and the marked play of transition

During the 9th and 10th centuries, Chichén Itzá successful the Yucatán Peninsula consolidated itself arsenic the governmental halfway of the region, nether the enactment of notable rulers specified arsenic K’ahk’ Upakal, who succeeded successful establishing relations with the metropolis of Ek’ Balam. Chichén Itzá was a markedly cosmopolitan metropolis wherever divers linguistic and taste groups coexisted.

The iconography of the murals of the Temple of the Jaguars offers a model into this play of change. The scenes of sieges and conflicts suggest a clime of endemic warfare, apt driven by contention for power of the coastal commercialized routes, arsenic salt, obsidian, jade and quetzal feathers became immoderate of the astir coveted commodities.

From the position of the Maya cosmic worldview, the Feathered Serpent, Kukulcán, symbolized governmental legitimacy tied to commerce and warfare, arsenic the relation of the ineffable lords waned successful importance. Although by the clip of the Spanish arrival, Chichén Itzá nary longer held its erstwhile governmental control, its prestige arsenic a ceremonial halfway was maintained among the community, functioning arsenic a tract of ineffable pilgrimage good into the assemblage period.

The Chontal Maya: The large navigators

One of the pillars of Postclassic prosperity was the emergence of maritime trade, led by the Chontal Maya, oregon Putunes. These groups, originating from the portion of Tabasco and Campeche, became the large navigators of this humanities context. Thanks to their accomplishment successful navigating large-draft canoes, they established a web of strategical enclaves connecting the Gulf of Mexico with the Caribbean Sea.

Following the diminution of Chichén Itzá astir A.D. 1200, the metropolis of Mayapán emerged arsenic the caller superior of the Yucatán Peninsula. (INAH)

In this regard, the land of Cozumel played a cardinal dual role: connected 1 hand, it functioned arsenic the sanctuary of the goddess Ixchel, and connected the other, arsenic a large commercialized port. From there, Chontal commercialized routes extended southward, reaching the rima of the Motagua River and the Gulf of Honduras. This web not lone mobilized luxury goods for the elite, but besides basal necessities specified arsenic fish, honey, cacao and perchance brackish from the brackish flats of bluish Yucatán, among others. This mercantilist system was the captious enactment that allowed ample populations to persist successful a politically fragmented environment.

The emergence and autumn of Mayapán

Following the diminution of Chichén Itzá astir A.D. 1200, the metropolis of Mayapán emerged arsenic the caller superior of the peninsula. Mayapán was a densely populated metropolis protected by a partition much than 9 kilometers long. This diagnostic reflects the request for centralized defence successful the look of a clime of changeless insecurity. The “League of Mayapán,” a strategy of governance utilized to support determination stability, was made up of the cities of Chichén Itzá (led by the Itzá lineage) and Uxmal (led by the Xiu), portion the Cocom maintained power of Mayapán. The imposition of this governmental entity connected the determination scenery ended violently successful the mid-15th century, erstwhile accumulated hostility among noble families — exacerbated by the authoritarianism of the rulers — culminated successful a revolt led by the Xiu lineage against the Cocom.

Archaeological excavations astatine the halfway of Mayapán amusement grounds of fires, deliberate demolition of monuments, and quality remains that corroborate a traumatic collapse. This lawsuit was not simply a alteration of dynasty, but the extremity of the past large centralized operation successful Yucatán. Following the autumn of Mayapán (around A.D. 1441), the peninsula fragmented into 16 autarkic provinces — successful changeless struggle implicit power of territory and resources — called cuchcabalo’ob, each headed by a halach winik, oregon “true man-ruler.” After this rupture, the Xiu lineage settled successful Maní, the Cocom successful Sotuta, and the Cupul successful the portion of the aforesaid name, whose superior was Zací (present-day Valladolid successful the eastbound portion of the Yucatán Peninsula).

It was precisely this disunity that the Spanish conquistadors encountered successful the 16th century; the enmity betwixt the Xiu and the Cocom was truthful heavy that the erstwhile allied with Francisco de Montejo to face the latter, inadvertently facilitating the conquest of the Northern Lowlands.

The Maya Highlands

While the northbound was fragmenting, successful the Highlands of Guatemala, states of large complexity and marked militarism were consolidating. The astir salient was the K’iche’ state, with its superior astatine K’umarkaj (or Utatlán). Unlike the Yucatecan model, the K’iche’ strategy of authorities was a meritocratic and rotational hierarchy among elite lineages.

In this system, the sons of the nobility were integrated into a operation of subject ranks, wherever advancement depended connected show successful warfare and administration. The highlands became a mosaic of highly competitory warrior states, specified arsenic the Kaqchikels (with their superior astatine Iximché), who were initially allies of the K’iche’ earlier rebelling and organizing their ain territory.

The K’iche’ successful the Guatemalan Highlands were overthrown by Spanish conquistadors led by Pedro de Alvarado. (Diego Duran/Getty Images)

By the clip of the Spanish accomplishment successful the 16th century, the portion was marked by endemic warfare among these groups. The Kaqchikels attempted to instrumentality vantage of the accomplishment of the conquistadors by initially allying with Pedro de Alvarado to subdue their K’iche’, Tz’utujil and Pipil rivals. However, this confederation was short-lived; owed to mistreatment and tribute demands, the Kaqchikels rebelled against the Spanish, but successful 1526 they were wholly defeated and their superior of Iximché fell to the conquistadors.

Years earlier, successful 1524, the Spanish had already defeated the K’iche’, and their superior K’umarkaj had been destroyed; meanwhile, Zaculeu, superior of the Mam, had besides succumbed successful 1525, aft enduring a Spanish siege for respective months.

Epilogue

The Postclassic play is simply a testament to the resilience of a civilization that adapted to survive. The abandonment of the large city-states did not mean the “collapse” of their culture; connected the contrary, Maya individuality persisted done its assorted groups, its languages and cosmic worldview that, with the accomplishment of the Spanish, underwent a analyzable process of syncretism. The Postclassic should not beryllium seen arsenic the extremity of Maya culture, but arsenic a play of translation — a caller process of alteration connected the eve of the brushwood betwixt 2 chiseled and distant civilizations — 1 that erstwhile again demonstrated the capableness for adaptation, absorption and resilience of the Maya peoples to this day.

It would not beryllium until 1697 that the past superior of the past Maya, Tayasal (Noh Petén) successful Flores, Guatemala, was overthrown by the Spanish conquistadors. However, it should beryllium noted that betwixt 1847 and 1901, the struggle known arsenic the Caste War took place, successful which the peninsular Maya populations roseate again successful a conflict for their autonomy. Today, Maya taste identity, its languages and traditions stay live successful Yucatán, Guatemala, Chiapas and Belize — with existent populations continuing to show their millennia-old capableness for adaptation, betterment and resistance.

Pablo Mumary holds a doctorate successful Mesoamerican studies from UNAM and presently works astatine the Center for Maya Studies astatine IIFL-UNAM arsenic a full-time subordinate researcher. He specializes successful the survey of the lordships of the Maya Lowlands of the Classic period.